The Children of Israel (Bani Israel), descendants of Prophet Yaqub (Jacob), had lived in Egypt since the time of Prophet Yusuf (Joseph). Over time, their status declined, and they were enslaved by the Copts of Egypt, ruled by a tyrannical Pharaoh (Fir'aun). He divided the people into castes and oppressed the Israelites, killing their sons and keeping their women alive.
One night, Pharaoh had a disturbing dream: a fire coming from the direction of Jerusalem (Bait-ul-Maqdis) that burnt the houses of the Egyptians but left the Israelites unharmed. His soothsayers interpreted this to mean that a boy would be born among the Israelites who would destroy his kingdom. Terrified, Pharaoh ordered that every male child born to the Israelites be killed immediately.
Musa (AS) was born during a year when boys were being killed. His mother, Jochebed (Yukabad), was terrified for his safety. Allah inspired her to place her baby in a basket (or chest) and cast him into the Nile river, promising that He would return him to her and make him one of the Messengers.
The basket floated down the Nile and was picked up by the family of Pharaoh. When Pharaoh's wife, Asiya (a believer in secret), saw the baby, Allah placed love for him in her heart. She pleaded with her husband not to kill him, saying:
Meanwhile, baby Musa refused the milk of all wet nurses. His sister, who had followed the basket, suggested a woman who could nurse him—his own mother. Thus, Allah's promise was fulfilled, and Musa was returned to his mother to be nursed under the royal protection of the very man who wanted to kill him.
Musa grew up strong and wise in the palace. One day, he entered the city and saw an Egyptian beating an Israelite. The Israelite asked Musa for help. Musa struck the Egyptian with his fist, unintentionally killing him. He immediately regretted it and asked Allah for forgiveness.
The next day, a man warned him that the chiefs were plotting to kill him. Musa fled Egypt in fear, heading towards Madyan.
Arriving in Madyan, exhausted and hungry, he sat by a well. He saw two women waiting to water their flocks but holding back because of the crowd of men. Musa helped them water their sheep. The women returned home and told their father, the Prophet Shu'aib (AS) (according to many scholars), about the stranger's kindness and strength.
Shu'aib invited Musa to his home. Impressed by Musa's character, he offered him one of his daughters in marriage, provided Musa worked for him for eight or ten years. Musa agreed, fulfilled the term, and lived a peaceful life as a shepherd.
After completing his term, Musa traveled with his family back towards Egypt. On a dark, cold night near Mount Tur (in Sinai), he saw a fire in the distance. He told his family to wait while he brought a brand of fire to warm them.
Allah spoke directly to Musa (making him Kalimullah, the one who spoke to Allah). He was given two miracles: his staff turned into a writhing snake, and his hand turned shining white when placed in his pocket. Allah commanded him to go to Pharaoh and demand the release of the Children of Israel. Musa asked for his brother Harun (Aaron) to assist him, as Harun was more eloquent in speech.
Musa and Harun went to the court of Pharaoh. They invited him to worship the One True God and to stop oppressing the Israelites. Pharaoh arrogantly rejected the message, claiming he was the "Lord Most High."
When Musa showed the miracles of the staff and the shining hand, Pharaoh accused him of being a magician and challenged him to a contest with the best magicians of Egypt.
On the day of the festival, the magicians threw their ropes and staffs, casting a spell on the people's eyes so they appeared as moving snakes. Then Musa threw his staff.
The magicians recognized this was not magic but divine power. They immediately fell into prostration, declaring their belief in the Lord of Musa and Harun. Pharaoh, enraged, threatened to cut off their hands and feet and crucify them, but they remained steadfast in their faith, choosing martyrdom over disbelief.
Pharaoh continued his oppression. Allah sent nine signs (plagues) to humble the Egyptians, including years of drought, scarcity of fruit, a flood, locusts, lice, frogs, and blood. Each time, Pharaoh promised to let the Israelites go if the plague was removed, but each time he broke his promise.
Finally, Allah commanded Musa to lead the Israelites out of Egypt by night. Pharaoh gathered a massive army and pursued them. The Israelites reached the Red Sea with the army closing in. They cried out, "We are overtaken!" Musa replied with absolute conviction:
Allah commanded Musa to strike the sea with his staff. The sea parted, each side rising like a great mountain, creating a dry path. The Israelites crossed safely. When Pharaoh and his army tried to follow, the sea collapsed upon them, drowning the tyrant and his soldiers. At the moment of death, Pharaoh tried to declare belief, but it was too late.
After crossing, Musa went to Mount Tur for 40 nights to receive the Torah. In his absence, a man named Samiri misled the Israelites. He collected their gold jewelry and melted it into the shape of a calf that made a lowing sound (likely due to wind passing through it). The people began worshipping it.
When Musa returned, holding the Tablets of the Torah, he was furious. He threw down the tablets, seized his brother Harun by the beard (thinking he had been negligent), and confronted Samiri. The golden calf was burned and scattered into the sea, and the people were ordered to repent severely.
Among the Israelites, a wealthy man was murdered, and the identity of the killer was unknown. They argued and blamed each other. Allah commanded them through Musa to sacrifice a cow. They kept asking unnecessary questions about the cow's age, color, and work status, making it difficult for themselves. Finally, they found the specific cow and sacrificed it. They struck the dead man with a piece of the cow, and he miraculously came to life briefly to name his killer. This is the story behind the name of the longest Surah in the Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow).
Once, Musa was asked who the most learned man on earth was. He replied, "I am." Allah revealed to him that there was a servant of His, named Khidr, at the junction of the two seas who possessed knowledge Musa did not have. Musa traveled to meet him. The story, detailed in Surah Al-Kahf, teaches that human knowledge is limited and that Allah's wisdom (as shown through Khidr's seemingly strange actions like damaging a boat or killing a boy) is beyond human comprehension.
The Israelites wandered in the wilderness for 40 years as punishment for refusing to enter the Holy Land. During this time, Harun (AS) passed away. When the time for Musa's death came, the Angel of Death appeared in human form. Musa, not recognizing him, slapped him, damaging the angel's eye (in the human form). The angel returned to Allah. Allah restored his eye and told him to go back and tell Musa to place his hand on the back of an ox; for every hair his hand covered, he would live a year. Musa asked, "Then what?" Allah replied, "Then death." Musa said, "Then let it be now." He asked Allah to bring him within a stone's throw of the Holy Land before he died. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said he saw Musa's grave by the red sand hill.